Axl is a member of the TAM (Tyro3-Axl-Mer) receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) that share the vitamin K—dependent ligand Gas6 (growth arrest—specific 6). TAM family RTKs regulate a diverse range of cellular responses including cell survival, proliferation, autophagy, migration, angiogenesis, platelet aggregation, and natural killer cell differentiation. Axl is expressed in many embryonic tissues and is thought to be involved in mesenchymal and neural development, with expression in adult tissues largely restricted to smooth muscle cells (MGI Gene Expression Database; www.informatics.jax.org). Axl activation is linked to several signal transduction pathways, including Akt, MAP kinases, NF-κB, STAT, and others. Originally identified as a transforming gene from a patient with chronic myelogenous leukaemia, Axl has since been associated with various high-grade cancers and correlated with poor prognosis.
Axl receptor overexpression has been detected in a wide range of solid tumours and myeloid leukaemia (Linger et al, Adv Cancer Res. 100: 35, 2008; Linger et al, Expert Opin Ther Targets. 14:1073, 2010).
Axl expression correlates with malignant progression and is an independent predictor of poor patient overall survival in several malignancies including pancreatic (Song et al, Cancer. 117:734, 2011), prostate (Paccez et al, Oncogene. 32:698, 2013), lung (Ishikawa et al. Ann Surg Oncol. 2012; Zhang et al, Nat Genet. 44:852, 2012), breast (Gjerdrum, Proc natl Acad Sci USA 107:1124, 2010), colon cancer (Yuen et al, PLoS One, 8:e54211, 2013) and acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) (Ben-Batalla et al, Blood 122:2443, 2013).
Axl signal transduction is activated by a protein ligand (Gas6) secreted by tumour associated macrophages (Loges et al, Blood. 115:2264, 2010) or autocrine mechanisms (Gjerdrum, Proc natl Acad Sci USA 107:1124, 2010), that drives receptor dimerization, autophosphorylation and downstream signalling, such as via PI3 kinase (PI3K)-AKT, particularly AKT and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways (Korshunov, Clinical Science. 122:361, 2012). Heterodimerization with other tyrosine kinase receptors, e.g. epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), is also reported to occur (Linger et al, Expert Opin Ther Targets. 14:1073, 2010; Meyer et al Science Signalling 6:ra66, 2013).
Aberrant activation of Axl in tumour cells is widely associated with acquired drug resistance to targeted therapeutics in vitro and in vivo (Zhang et al. Nat Genet. 44: 852, 2012; Byers et al. Clin Cancer Res. 19: 279, 2013). Axl-targeting agents block tumour formation, metastasis and reverse drug resistance (e.g. to erlotinib) by reversing EMT/CSC characteristics in several experimental cancer models, including triple negative breast cancer, hormone resistant prostate cancer and adenocarcinoma of the lung (Holland et al Cancer Res 70:1544, 2010; Gjerdrum, Proc natl Acad Sci USA 107:1124, 2010; Zhang et al. Nat Genet. 44: 852, 2012; Paccez et al, Oncogene. 32:698, 2013).
Other applications relating to Axl and anti-Axl antibodies include EP2267454A2 [Diagnosis and prevention of cancer cell invasion measuring . . . Axl—Max Planck]; WO2009063965 [anti Axl—Chugai Pharmaceutical]; WO2011159980A1 [anti-Axl—Genentech], WO2011014457A1 [combination treatments Axl and VEGF antagonists—Genentech]; WO2012-175691A1 [Anti Axl 20G7-D9—INSERM], WO2012-175692A1 [Anti Axl 3E3E8—INSERM]; WO2009/062690A1 [anti Axl—U3 Pharma] and WO2010/130751A1 [humanised anti Axl—U3 Pharma].
In view of the role of Axl in tumourigenesis, it is desirable to identify further antibodies with advantageous properties, which specifically bind Axl. The present disclosure concerns such antibodies.